PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL SYSTEM
The Republic of the Philippines is a constitutional democracy, with the President
elected as Head of State and Government. The national government has three separate
and co-equal branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial, all of whom
exercise a system of checks and balances.
The Executive Branch consists of the President and his Cabinet; the Legislative
Branch is composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate; and the Judicial
Branch, the system of courts headed by the Supreme Court. Local governments are
similar to the executive branch in structure and function. Provinces are headed by
governors; cities and municipalities by mayors; and the barangays, locally
organized communities, by barangay chairpersons.
THE PEOPLE
The Philippines has a population of close to 76.4 million people (based on the
2000 Census). It is a young population with 50% of the people who are below 22 years
old. The labor force, composed of those between 15 to 64 years of age, is estimated
at 26 million. The middle class constitutes 25% of the population and is expected to
grow with increased business and employment opportunities.
The country has one of the most highly educated populations in Southeast Asia.
English is widely spoken and understood, and is used extensively in business,
government, and education.
Filipinos are ethnically of Malay stock, which has been enriched through the
centuries by Chinese, Muslim/Arab, Spanish and Americans bloods. Their character is
thus a unique blend of said cultures and traits put together. Filipinos are known for
bayanihan (mutual self-ship), close family relations, and a world-renowned Filipino
hospitality towards others, which makes the country a favored destination among
seasoned travelers.
some travel photos around Manila:
www.tropicalisland.de/travel_philippines.html
LANGUAGES
The national language is Filipino although there are at least 87 regional
languages. English, widely spoken and understood, is the language used for most
business and legal transactions. Hokkien, Cantonese, and Mandarin and spoken by
older members of the Filipino-Chinese community.
RELIGION
At least 80 percent of Filipinos belong to the Roman Catholic faith. About 15
percent is Moslem, and who can be found predominantly in Mindanao. The rest of the
population is made up mostly of smaller Christian denominations and Buddhists.
PHILIPPINE LOCATION AND GEOGRAPHY
The Philippines is an archipelago of some 7,107 islands. It has a land area of
about 333,000 square kilometers and a coastline of 18,411 kilometers. It is divided
into three major island groups: Luzon in the north, Visayas in the center, and
Mindanao in the south.
Strategically located in the Asia Pacific region, the Philippines is readily
accessible from the major travel centers of the world. Travel time from Hongkong to
Manila is an hour and 50 minutes; from Singapore, 3 hours and 10 minutes; Bangkok,
3 hours and 50 minutes; Tokyo, 4 hours and 15 minutes; Sydney, 8 hours and 20
minutes; London, 14 hours and 45 minutes; Frankfurt, 14 hours and 15 minutes; Los
Angeles, 12 hours and 20 minutes. Manila is the country's capital and main port
city of Cebu, in the south, is the second international gateway.
The climate is generally tropical, with two distinct seasons ranging from dry
(between November and May) to rainy (usually from June to October). Average
rainfall is about 2,030 millimeters and temperatures ranges from a low of 20 C to a
high of 31 C.
PHILIPPINE ECONOMY
Major Industries
In the manufacturing sector, the output is distributed as follows: consumer
goods,57%, intermediate goods, 25% and capital goods, 18%. The dominant sub-sectors
for consumer goods are food and beverage, wearing apparel, footwear and tobacco. For
intermediate goods, the demand is strong for petroleum products and coal for power
generation and chemicals for drugs and personal care products. Electronics,
including semi-conductors, and iron and steel led manufactured capital goods.
The Philippines is rich in mineral resources. The Mining Act of 1995 liberalized
the industry, paving the way for the entry of foreign mining firms through a package
of incentives, including net operating loss carry-over and accelerated depreciation.
The construction industry, which took off in 1994, is expected to sustain its
growth. Private investors are taking greater interest in infrastructure projects
under the expanded build-operate and transfer (BOT) programs. The demand for office
and residential buildings, as well as shopping malls, subdivision projects and
industrial estates, remains strong.
Major Agricultural Industries
The main agricultural products are rice, corn, coconut, and sugar. The
Philippines is one of the largest exporters of coconut oil and sugar, although their
relative shares are on the decline. Poultry and livestock have emerged as the new
growth areas of the sector.
The major livestock products are hog, cattle, carabao, goat, and dairy products.
Chicken and duck are the leading poultry products. Having vast stretches of
coastlines, the Philippines boasts of an abundance in fish species. Among the
leading species are tuna and tuna-like varieties, roundscad, sardines, anchovy, and
slipmouth.
BRIEF PHILIPPINE HISTORY
Historians believe the islands of the Philippines dates back to the Paleolithic age.
Based on the archeological artifacts recovered, Filipino society and culture were
fairly developed prior to contacts with other countries. Filipinos had commercial
relations early on with China, Indo-China, Malaysia, India, and the Arab countries.
Chinese silk, porcelain, jars, gold, ivory, and beads were traded for wax, bird's
nest, teakwood, rattan, pearls, precious stones, and other marine and forest
products.
Ferdinand Magellan came to the Philippines on March 16, 1521 and claimed the
country for the Spanish Crown. A colonial government was established in Manila in
1571. Spain introduced changes in the political, social, and cultural life of the
people. One of these is Christianity. In 1896, the Filipinos staged the first
nationalistic revolution in Asia against European colonizers. The 1896 Revolution
was the culmination of a succession of revolts against Spanish oppression. The death
by musketry of Dr. Jose Rizal, who led the reform movement, fueled the fires of
revolution.
On June 12, 1898, leaders of the revolution declared the country's sovereign
state and proclaimed the first Republic of the Philippines, the first constitutional
democracy in Asia. Meanwhile, Spain declared war against the United States over Cuba
and was defeated. As an offshoot, the Philippines was ceded to America by Spain
through the Treaty of Paris.
Under American rule, agriculture, commerce, and trade developed. Among the
changes they introduced were: the modernization of transportation and communication,
the improvement of banking and currency, and a system of public education.
At the outbreak of the Second World War, Japan occupied the country. In 1945, the
Americans under Gen. Douglas MacArthur liberated the country and granted it
independence in 1946.
The Republic of the Philippines was proclaimed on July 4, 1946, with Manuel
Roxas as President. Massive rehabilitation and rebuilding out of the devastation
brought about by the war was started. In 1972, Martial Law was declared by then
President Ferdinand Marcos. Political repression and economic deterioration during
the Martial Law Years resulted in the historic "People Power" Revolution of February
25, 1986. This led to the proclamation of Corazon C. Aquino as President of the
Philippines.
Filipinos, under the leadership of President Aquino, restored the democratic
institutions of the country. A Constitution, ratified on February 2, 1987, provided
for a tripartite system of government: the Executive, the Legislative, and the
Judiciary. This was the type of government before Marcos declared Martial Law and
adopted a modified parliamentary government. Also restored were the freedoms of
speech, press, and of assembly.
On June 30, 1992, Fidel V. Ramos became the 12th President of the Philippine
Republic. President Ramos, a hero of the 1986 EDSA uprising, anchored his government
on twin themes of "people empowerment" and "global excellence" as the engines of
economic growth and social equity.
On the 100th anniversary year of the Proclamation of Philippine Independence,
Joseph Ejercito Estrada became the 13th President of the Philippines. President
Estrada has prioritized the creation of an environment of peace and order in which
business does well and food security for the majority of the Filipino people, among
others.
On 20 January 2001, the incumbent President, H.E. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, took
her oath of office as the 14th President of the Philippines in front of thousands of
Filipinos at EDSA, in what is now popularly known as EDSA People Power II. The main
thrust of President Macapagal-Arroyo's adminstration is good governance.
( back to top )
Philippine Civilization and Technology
* Before the Spaniards *
Early Metalurgy
When the Spanish began to colonize the Philippine islands the culture
and technology was by no means that far behind most other areas of the
world. Indeed, in many areas the Filipinos were quite advanced. The metal
smith, Panday Piray of Pampanga, was so skilled at so many types of
metal working including weapons making that the Spanish entrusted him with
opening the first Spanish artillery foundry in the country. The Spanish
found that the Filipinos made their own small arquebuses, or portable
cannons, usually made of bronze. Larger cannons made of iron and resembling
culverins provided heavier firepower. The iron cannon at Raha Soliman's
house was about 17 feet long and was made from clay and wax moulds.
The most fearsome weapon though was the famed lantaka, or swivel
gun. Unlike the Spanish cannons these guns were placed on flexible swivels
that allowed the gunner to quickly track a moving target. The lantakas of
the Moros gave the Spanish so much trouble that they always included native
ships, like the karakoa, equipped with lantakas to counter the Moro weapons.
The most impressive lantakas had two revolving barrels. These were
eventually exported to South America, and may have become the precursor of
the Gatling gun.
Piray started a tradition of high quality metal casting that lasted for
centuries in many parts of the Philippines. Many individuals with surnames
like Piray, Viray, etc., may have ancestors who were members of the guilds
of smiths who followed the Piray lineage. The metal work involving
authentic native swords was also of the highest quality. Unfortunately,
this fell into disuse among most of the lowlanders of the North. However,
the Muslims and animists of the South continued to make very fine kampilans,
krisses, etc., that can take many years of work to complete. Sword makers
were also astrologers who waited for auspicious conjunctions of planets
before proceeding with each elaborate phase of the sword making ritual. The
passage of the sword from the maker to the owner was a very mystical
ceremony, replete with all types of supernatural beliefs. A well-made
kampilan or kris is really one of the finest pieces of
handicraft that can be found anywhere. In the North, they also had the
kampilan, and another excellent weapon known as the bararao.
In addition to weapons, the Filipinos made good armor for use in the
battlefield. The Moros in particular had armor that covered the entire body
from the top of the head to the toes. Fortresses known as kuta or kota, and
moog were built to protect large communities. These fortresses were
protected with the cannons mentioned above. Governor Sande noted that when
he asked local Filipinos to contribute their bronze cannons for use against
the Moros, he received the equivalent of 400 quintals of bronze (about 21
tons) from an area with a radius of about eight leagues (24 miles).
However, the large powerful cannons were more scarce. The fort at Tondo had
less arnaments that an average Spanish warship. The problem was the big
weapons often required the same complex, lengthy ritualistic procedure in
manufacture as swords like the kampilan and the kris. Also, even small
firearms were seen as status symbols for datus and rahas and thus, were
generally too expensive for the ordinary warrior. However, the main
disadvantage suffered by the Filipinos was that their guns were too often
turned against themselves in service of "his Catholic majesty."
Although contemporary paintings exist of some Filipino forts, few
remains exist. Strangely, in the far eastern corner of Ifugao Province
remains of a very ancient fortress have been discovered. The fort had stone
walls that averaged several meters in width and about two to three times the
width in height. At first it was thought that these were the remains of an
unknown Spanish fortress, but advanced dating methods and analysis of the
tools, utensils and other artifacts showed that the most likely dating was
about 2,000 B.C.
Some of the weaponry concocted by the Filipino was quite unusual. For
instance, one weapon was the prototype of the modern yoyo, and it returned
to is owner after being flung at an opponent.
People of the Sea
The Filipinos, particularly the Bisayans, impressed the Spanish with
their navigational skills. Some Filipinos used a type of compass similar to
that found among the people of Borneo and the Chinese, although most had no
need for such devices. They used sailing techniques native to the ancient
Malayo-Polynesian people. Some of the fishermen and traders in the Bisayas,
Mindanao, Sulu and other areas of the Philippines can still navigate long
distances over open water without modern instruments. The Philippine ships
were of excellent quality and continued to be of great use to the Spaniards
who included armed Karakao, or korkoa, and other vessels not only in
expeditions against rebellious or resistant Filipinos, but also against
intruding Dutch and British forces. The karakao was a rowed vessel with
small rowing canoes placed under each outrigger. It's name is related to the
korokoro of Indonesia, the kolik and kurakura of
Malaysia, the kelakela of Tikopia, kel or gel of Anuda,
and the kel of Pak. Some of the larger rowed vessels held up to a
hundred rowers on each side besides a contigent of armed troops. Generally
the larger vessels held at least one lantaka at the front of the vessel with
an additional one sometimes placed at the stern.
The Philippine sailing ships, or praos, shown in La Perouse's
drawings had double sails that seemed to rise well over a hundred feet from
the surface of the water. Despite their large size these canoes also had
double outriggers. Some larger sailing vessels mentioned by Antonio De
Morga and others did not use outriggers. All the commentators agreed that
the Filipinos had first contact were engaged in long-range trading with
their Asian neighbors. The various kingdoms of the islands ranged as far
West as the Maldives on the southwest coast of India and as far north as
Japan. A more controversial issue is whether the Filipinos had regular
contact with the peoples of Western Micronesia. The earliest Spaniards
commented on how peoples from both regions would regularly be blown from one
region to another. Occasionally if they were skilled navigators they could
possibly make their way back, while ordinary fishermen and the like probably
had to settle in their new home. Whether regular contacts once existed is a
difficult question, but Western Micronesia is one the only area in Oceania
that had rice crops at European contact. They also chewed betel nut, and
fermented coconut sap into wine, which is called tuba as in the Philippines.
An interesting connection between the Philippines and the Southeast is the
uncanny resemblance of complex body tatoos among the Bisayans and the Maori
of New Zealand (Aotearoa). However, we will leave this for a further future
link in our webpage.
Legazpi describes one of the "Moro" pilots captured from Butuan:
"...a most experienced man who had much knowledge, not only of matters
concerning these Filipinas Islands, but those of Maluco, Borney, Malaca,
Jaba, India, and China, where he had had much experience in
navigation and trade." (Blair and Robertson, Vol. II, p. 116.)
The Kapampangans were said to have continued their trade with Batavia
until the start of the galleon trade compelled the Spanish to take control
of all commerce. Indeed, at one point Filipinos were not even allowed to go
out of their villages to trade.
The Philippines was also an active trading center itself before the
coming of the Spanish. Pigafetta mentions that merchants and ambassadors
from all the surrounding areas came to pay tribute to the king of Cebu for
the purpose of trade. Indeed, while Magellan's crew were with the king a
representative from Siam was paying tribute. Legazpi wrote how merchants
from Luzon and Mindoro had come to Cebu for trade, and that they had
mentioned how Chinese merchants regularly came to the north for the same
purpose.
The Barangay
The word, barangay, usually means to modern Filipinos the basic
social unit into which communities are divided. However, the barangay is
also the name of an oceanic vessel that was used for trade, and also
apparently for migration. At Butuan in Northern Mindanao, a spectacular
find of barangay vessels was made in the mid-seventies. One of these ships
dated back to the 4th century, the oldest find of its kind in the
Austronesian region. Some of these boats were associated with T'ang Dynasty
pottery, the oldest to be found in the Philippines to date. In the same
area, skeletons were found with burial artifacts including wooden coffins
and various trade items.
Fishing
The Filipinos were skilled in all types of fishing and fisheries. In
the south, the basnig, a Viking-like ship, was and is the vessel of
choice among the Bisayans for ocean fishing. The salambao is a type
of raft that utilizes a large fishing net which is lowered into the water
via a type of lever made of two criss-crossed poles. Night fishing was
accomplished with the help of candles similar to the copal of Mexico. These
candles were made from a particular type of resin. Fish corrals, like the
ones still used today, were also employed by the ancient Filipino. However,
the area in which the Filipino most astonished Westerners was in their
advanced aquaculture:
"To the early Spaniards, the pisciculture of the Filipinos was
regarded almost as a new art, so much more advanced it was than fish
breeding methods in Europe." (Commercial Progress in the Philippine
Islands, Antonio M. Regidor and J. Warren T. Mason, 1905)
Many have looked to Japan for an explanation for these advanced methods.
The roe was transplanted to safe pens for incubation and to guard the small
fry from predators. Only when sufficiently mature to fend for themselves
were they released back into the wild. These days this method is practiced
by fisheries throughout the world. Before the Spanish came, the Filipinos
also only used large mesh nets when fishing in rivers, lakes or in the sea.
This ecologically sound practice protected the young ensuring future good
catches. However, the competition brought by the Spaniards resulted in the
use of such small mesh nets that the Spanish themselves eventually had to
regulate the nets to prevent the destruction of the fisheries.
Philippine Jewelry, Metal Work and Mining
Mines dating back to at least 1,000 B.C. have been found in the
Philippines. When the Spanish arrived the Filipinos worked various mines of
gold, silver, copper and iron. They also seemed to have worked in brass
using tin that was likely imported from the Malay Peninsula. The iron work
in particular was said to be of very high quality in some cases, and
occassionaly in some areas, even better than that found in Europe.
When the Spanish arrived, the Philippines was so gilded with gold that
most of the gold mines had been neglected. According to De Morga:
"... the natives proceed more slowly in this ,and content themselves with
what they already possess in jewls and gold ingots handed down from
antiquity and inherited from their ancestors. This is considerable, for
he must be poor and wrethced who has no gold chains, calombigas, and
earrings."
However, things seem to already diminished from Pigafetta's time:
"On the island [Butuan] where the king came to the ship, pieces of gold
as large as walnuts or eggs are to be found, by sifting the earth. All the
dishes of the king are of gold, and his whole house is very well set up."
Pigafetta goes on to describe the huge gold ornaments, gold dagger
handles, tooth plating and even gold that was used to decorate the outside
of houses! On the gold work of the Filipinos is this description of the
people of Mindoro:
"...they possess great skill in mixing it [gold] with other metals.
They give it an outside appearance so natural and perfect, and so fine
a ring, that unless it is melted they can deceive all men, even the
best of silversmiths."
Apparently, even foreigners desired Filipino gold products. Recent
discoveries show that gold jewelry of Philippine origin was found in Egypt
near the beginning of the era. These finds are mentioned in Laszlo Legeza's
"Tantric elements in pre-Hispanic Philippines Gold Art," (Arts of
Asia, Jul-Aug 1988, p. 131) along a discussion of Philippine Tantric
art. Some outstanding examples of Philippine jewelry, which included
necklaces, belts, armlets and rings placed around the waist, are showcased
in J. T. Peralta's "Prehistoric gold ornaments from the Central Bank of the
Philippines," Arts of Asia 1981, no.4, p.54.
The Filipinos also made jewelry of carnelian, agate and other precious
stones, and of course, they were known for their coveted pearl industry.
The Filipinos made metal implements like the sumpak of carabao
horn and silver, a sort of fire piston, and the kalikot, of ebony and
silver, for pounding betel nuts into powder. Excellent gongs were made of
various metals. These gongs were often used as clocks, and Dampier and
other visitors to the Moro kingdom tell of the regular sounding of the gongs
to mark the hours of day and night. So far no evidence exists, that I am
aware of, that the Filipinos possessed the copper water clocks of the
Moluccas or Bali.
Metal vessels were made and some interesting copper vessels have been
found in the Itogon-Bua area of Mountain province. Sacred drums were also
sometimes cast in metal. For some reason, Filipinos rarely seemed to have
made agricultural tools from metal. They had quite an array of hammers,
chisels, mullers and the like but usually made of stone or wood. Possibly
iron, copper and brass were too valuable for use as weapons, and ceremonial
gongs, drums, vessels and the like.
In discussing metal work, it is interesting to note that discoveries
made at Ban Chiang in Thailand included the earliest dates for bronze found
anywhere in the world. While these dating have been challenged by
specialists in other fields, the original testers, Western and Thai, stand
by their datings. This, along iron finds much older than the previous
estimated start of the SE Asian Iron Age, have radically changed views of
this region.
Philippine Agriculture and Livestock
The Filipinos were great agriculturists. A report during the time of
Legazpi noted:
"...it [Luzon] has a great abundance of rice, fowls, and wine, as well
as great numbers of buffaloes, deer, wild boar and goats; it also produces
great quantities of cotton and colored clothes, wax, and honey; and date
palms abound." (Blair and Roberson, vol.xxxiii, p.207.)
Another early report on the Bisayas noted that: "rice, cotton, great
numbers of swine and fowls, wax, and honey are produced in great abundance.
(Ibid, vol.V, p. 83)." Leyte was said to produce two rice crops a year, and
Pedro Chirino commented on the great rice and cotton harvests that were
sufficient to feed and cloth the people.
The Filipinos practiced a form of duck culture around Pateros and
Tagig in Rizal that resembled that of the Chinese. This included methods of
artificial incubation of eggs, and the tradition was carried on until modern
times. Indeed, this is quite an advanced science which requires intimate
knowledge of every phase of a duck's life.
Rice Terraces
Nowhere in the world can one find agricultural wonders like the rice
terraces. Although dates on the terraces vary, modern dating tends to
verify Beyer's contention that they were started by at least 1,000 B.C.
Certainly, one can safely dismiss theories that they were only started
during Spanish times (by Spaniards perhaps?!).
The construction of these terraces is something that surpasses
comprehension. Check out this link:
The Rice Terraces of the Philippines,
for more information on these marvels. Also, for big, panoramic pictures of
Banaue
and
Bontok,
click the respective interactive text.
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Philippine Architecture
The houses of chiefs and other ruler's in the Philippines was said to be
impressive:
"They are built upon trees and thick arigues, with many rooms and
comforts. They are well constructed of timber and planks, and are
strong and large. They are furnished and supplied with all that is
necessary , and are much finer and more substantial than the others."
(Blair and Roberson, vol.xvi, p.84)
As stated earlier, the early Filipinos even went as far as to decorate
their houses with gold. However, the Spanish soon put a halt to this
practice. As is the case in Borneo, the use of timber in architecture has
left few remains of even the most grand Raja's palaces. Only people in some
of the far northern islands like the Ivatans build stone typhoon proof houses
because of their geographical situation along the typhoon belt. However,
everywhere in the Philippines all houses, stone or wood, chief or commoner,
used thatch for roofs.
The stone walls, canals, dams and reservoirs of the Igorots can also be
considered as type of architecture, or at least stone engineering. The amount
of stones used by the Igorots in their hydraulic engineering works is
estimated to far exceed in bulk those used in building the Pyramids or the
Great Wall of China. Many of these walls and canals are thousands of years
old and have withstood countless typhoons and the effects of Sun, wind and
time.
One of the last examples of native wooden bridges met a natural end some time
ago, but a photo of it is still available in Masferre's works.
Philippine Sculpture
The Filipinos were said to be excellent wood carvers, and most of their
sculpture was in wood. The carvings consisted mainly of small anitos for
the household, or for mostly small religious structures known as simbahan.
In some cases, fine carvings like the sarimanok were to be found.
Unfortunately, wood carvings like wood architecture rarely survives the march of
time. As many of the native arts suffered due to colonization, it is impossible
to determine what level the lowlanders reached in these arts. The gold Butuan
Tara statue may be an example of indigenous Buddhist art from period long
forgotten. We should remember, though, that even the great monuments of Borobodur
in Java were unknown to the inhabitants when they were rediscovered, and the
natives were surprised to learn that Buddhism had ever been practiced there.
Other Hindu and Buddhist statues of Avalokesvara and Ganesa have also been
recovered in the Philippines.
Philippine Textiles
The textile industry is one in which the Philippines has long acted
as an exporter. The early Spanish noted that the Filipinos knew how to
raise, spin and weave cotton and silk. Lace-making and embroidery were
widely practiced often with superb results. Besides cotton, abaca fiber and
banana leaf fiber was also used. The native silk was known as pina.
The woven works of the Philippines, particularly from the Muslims and
animists of the South are now receiving long overdue attention from the
international community.
Other Industries
Other Pre-Spanish Filipino industries included the manufacture of liquors
and vinegars like tuba, basi, etc., the production of hides for export to
Japan, export of edible bird's nests from Northern Palawan to China, the
raising and trade of civet cats, the manufacture of gunpowder, the making of
wax for export to China, and the making of cotton stockings for export.
Philippine Mathematics,
Philippine Astronomy and,
Calendric Science
There is insufficent space to go into details here since no written
traditions exist, and one must piece together details like a detective. The
Filipinos had a rather sophisticated system of counting and weights and
measurement. They used a decimal counting system, but also systems based on
other numbers. They had names for various types of numbers much larger than
the myriad used in Europe until fairly modern times. They also used mnenomic
aids like the runo counters of the Ifugao in making mathematical calculations.
Sometimes, shells or pebbles were stacked in heaps or used with boards like
the Sungka to aid in calculations.
The Filipinos were avid astronomers and astrologers. The Ifugao, for
example, were said to possess the world's most perfect calender (See Beyer,
Otley, "Ifugaos using world's most perfect calender." Philippine Free
Press, 26 July 1924.) There is much evidence that the Filipino knew the
difference between the tropical year, as determined by the Sun's declination,
and the sidereal year, as determined by the helical rising of stars. The
Igorots of Sagada used stone calenders to mark the Sun's declination in
a manner similar to some great ancient monuments of the world. The
declination fix is known as gadagad. The movement of the planets was
well known among many tribes as was the helical rising and setting of the
stars. The stars were also used as clocks at night, while the Sun was used
during the day. In addition to using the rising and setting of the stars as a
night clock, the Aetas and others used the Southern Cross like one would use a
modern timepiece, while the Ifugao used Monliwotan (The Winder), or the
Big Dipper.
Also, the star rising when he Sun vanished was known as the Pauwit
star and it was used just like the Sun during the day in telling time. There
is even a legend of how the Pauwit star takes the place of the Sun. The
ancient Filipinos also knew that the time given by the Sun and stars changed
when one moved east or west, or even north and south, just like the
Micronesians and other Oceanic peoples. The Igorot chants, for example,
always give the solar time according to place, and the Micronesian navigators
knew that the difference in rising time between two stars with different
declinations was different at varying latitudes.
This is a complicated area and more will be added to this section in the
future.
Early Philippine Writing and
Early Philippine Education
The literacy of the Filipinos astonished the Spanish. Morga states about
the native script: "Almost all the natives, both men and women, write in this
language. There are very few who do not write it excellently and correctly."
This was very different than the situation in Europe were the it was mostly
the elite that were literate. The writing was done on palm-leaves with a pen
with an iron point. It was only later they adopted the European quill,
although eventually everyone began using the Filipino method of iron points
again.
It may be that there were at least two types of script used in the
Philippines -- one for the commoner and one for the elite. The commoner
script was highly successful in that the masses were able to learn and use it
quickly. The evidence of a more sophisticated script comes in the finding of
the
Laguna Copper Plate Grant
.
This script was similar to Kawi of Indonesia and could represent many more sounds.
Yet another script found in the islands is the that of the Eskaya tribe.
There is an article in the September 1991 issue of Mabuhay magazine
that discussed this tribe and their forgotten script.
According to the article, the Eskaya, who live on the island of Bohol,
speak a language unrelated to the Boholano or Cebuano dialects. They use a
script, which is described as logographic, having 46 symbols representing
sound syllables rather than alphabets. The symbols are based on parts of the
human anatomy. The article states that the script was similar to that of the
Phoenicians, which would actually make it logo-syllabic rather than
logographic. The use of 46 syllables shows that it was a rather sophisticated
language.
The article claims that the script and some documents in this language had
been preserved by Mariano Datahan from a Spanish edict that all writing in the
language should be burned. They were passed on to Fabian Baha, the present
leader of the tribe(as of 1991) in 1947. Today, the Eskaya continue to teach
the children their script and traditions. In fact, the article claims that
scholars and linguists are also studying the Eskaya language and script in
hopes of obtaining clues as to the ancestor of the modern Bisayan languages.
The Eskaya claim to have come originally from Western Sumatra, from whence
they sailed to Bohol in 677 AD. They claim that Sikatuna and Dagohoy were
also from the Eskaya tribe. They have many legends concerning their own
culture hero who is known as Tamblot. As of 1991, there were 130 families of
Eskaya living in Bohol.
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